Steerage Across the Atlantic: The Immigrant Experience on Ocean Liners

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the steerage deck of an Atlantic steamer was a world of noise, smell, and ceaseless motion. The immigrant who had paid for a passage in the crowded quarters below the waterline was one of millions who crossed the ocean in search of a new life. Above, in the saloons and cabins, a handful of wealthy travelers dined on china and champagne. But in the steerage there was no china, no champagne—only the salt of the sea and the hope of a future. Contemporary accounts from newspapers, diaries, and official reports paint a vivid picture of this extraordinary passage, where the “best blood” of Europe and Asia was carried across the Atlantic in a single vessel.

What Happened?

The era of mass immigration by steamship began in earnest in the 1860s and 1870s. By 1870, more than 90 percent of immigrants to America arrived by steamship, according to the Smithsonian Institution. Steamship companies, which had originally carried mail and a handful of passengers, discovered that the immigrant trade was their main source of income into the 1920s. In 1871, the Hamburg-America Line steamers alone carried 4,200 cabin passengers and 24,500 steerage passengers into New York. The scale grew rapidly. From 1900 to 1914, nearly 13 million immigrants traveling in Third Class arrived in the United States, while America’s wealthiest citizens—no more than a hundred thousand passengers each year—traveled to Europe in First Class, spending over $11.5 billion (in contemporary dollars).

• 1870: Steamships carry 90% of immigrants to the United States.
• 1871: Hamburg-America Line reports 4,200 cabin passengers and 24,500 steerage passengers into New York.
• 1900–1914: Nearly 13 million third-class immigrants arrive in the United States.

How It Was Seen at the Time

Contemporaries saw steerage as a mixture of opportunity and misery. An 1884 article in The Graphic, reprinted in an American magazine, described the emigration craze as “draining our own country, England, Ireland, and many other countries on the Continent, of their best blood.” The article also noted the harsh conditions but emphasized the diverse nationalities and the entertainments that broke the monotony of the voyage. The contrast between the rich and poor was a constant theme. The steamship companies designed their finest accommodations for the wealthy, yet they relied on the immigrant trade for their profits. The 1865 Harper’s New Monthly Magazine article “In the Steerage” offered a similarly mixed portrait, describing both the discomfort and the resilience of the passengers.

“In these days, when the excitement of emigration, which is draining our own country, England, Ireland, and many other countries on the Continent, of their best blood, is at its height…” — The Graphic, 1884

Historical Snapshot

Eyewitness Accounts

One of the most vivid primary sources is the 1884 account of a steerage passenger from Montrose, Scotland, published in The Graphic. The article describes the “harsh living conditions, inadequate food, and lack of hygiene” and also the “diverse nationalities of the passengers and their interactions, including entertainments and daily routines.” The passenger wrote of the crowded decks, the smell, and the constant motion of the ship. Another eyewitness account from 1865, published in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, describes the voyage in the steerage of the Inman Line’s City of New York. The author noted the cramped quarters, the poor food, and the mixture of nationalities, but also the passengers’ attempts to create a social life amid the chaos.

“The following racy sketch of the experiences of a steerage passenger (belonging to Montrose), in crossing the Atlantic in an Ocean Liner, will be of interest to many of our readers.” — The Graphic, 1884

Official Reports

In 1911, the United States Immigration Commission published a report on steerage conditions, compiled by Anna Herkner and based on the observations of undercover agents who traveled in the steerage of twelve trans-Atlantic ships. The report, printed in the Reports of the Immigration Commission of the United States Senate, documented the overcrowding, poor ventilation, and inadequate sanitation that were common on these vessels. The agents found that the food was often meager and unappetizing, and that the passengers were frequently exposed to disease. The official report confirmed what the 1884 article had already described: that the immigrant trade was profitable but the conditions were often appalling.

Daily Life

Daily life in steerage was a routine of discomfort and boredom. The passengers were housed in large, open compartments below the waterline, with little privacy and no fresh air. The food was served in a communal mess, often consisting of boiled beef, potatoes, and bread, though the quality varied by line. Hygiene was a constant problem, with only a few washbasins and no bathing facilities. The 1884 account describes the “entertainments and daily routines” that developed, including singing, dancing, and card games, as passengers tried to break the monotony. The voyage lasted from a few days to more than a week, depending on the ship and the weather, and the passengers often spent most of their time on deck when the weather permitted.

Numbers at the Time

Common Misconceptions

In the end, the primary sources show that steerage was a transformative experience, both for the millions who crossed and for the country that received them. The accounts of the passengers, the reports of the officials, and the statistics of the time reveal a complex world of hope and hardship, of danger and determination. The steerage passage was the first test of the immigrant’s new life, and it was a test that many passed with courage.