Short Answer
Before written texts existed, humans drew charts. The map is one of the oldest forms of non-verbal communication, and every culture in every part of the world uses and makes maps. In the archives, a map is not merely a tool for finding one’s way; it is a primary source that can unlock the mentalities, knowledge, and political agendas of the people who created it. This article explores how to read maps as primary sources, drawing on contemporary guides and historical practice to show what these documents reveal—and what they often conceal.
What Happened?
Map-making is a universal human activity, likely predating formal language. As the guide Maps Getting Started explains, “The map is one of the oldest forms of non-verbal communication. Humans were probably drawing maps before they were writing texts.” (Source: chnm.gmu.edu) The practice of creating and using maps spans all cultures and eras, from ancient cave paintings to modern digital cartography. But the use of maps as historical evidence is a more recent scholarly practice. Historians and geographers have come to understand that maps are not neutral reflections of space; they are products of their time, shaped by the knowledge, technology, and purposes of their makers.
In the twenty-first century, historians treat maps as primary sources that illustrate change over time and tell us about the people who made them, the times in which they lived, and what they knew and didn’t know. The Library of Congress’s World Digital Library explains: “Maps are much more than geographical representations of places. In addition to teaching geographic understanding, maps illustrate change over time. They can tell us about the people who made them, the times in which they lived, and what they knew and didn’t know.” (Source: loc.gov) This realization has transformed maps from mere illustrations to rich historical documents.
How It Was Seen at the Time
Contemporaries who created and used maps in past centuries did not think of them as “primary sources” but as practical tools for navigation, administration, and power. A map was a means to claim territory, to plan a journey, or to assert authority over a place. The Library of Congress’s teacher guide emphasizes that “maps can also make an argument. Maps have been used to claim new territory, to insult rivals and to attack competitors.” (Source: Library of Congress) In the age of exploration, for example, European monarchs commissioned maps that would justify their claims to the New World. Indigenous peoples, in contrast, used maps to record kinship and sacred landscapes. The prevailing mood was one of utility: maps were meant to be acted upon, not merely read. Yet even then, mapmakers made choices—what to include, what to omit, how to distort—that historians now recognize as arguments.
Historical Snapshot
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Date | Pre-writing era to present |
| Place | Worldwide |
| People | Mapmakers, cartographers, navigators, rulers, and everyday users |
| What Happened | Maps were created and used to represent space, claim territory, and communicate knowledge |
| Why It Mattered | Maps provide a unique window into the worldview, technology, and biases of past societies |
What People Knew at the Time
| What People Knew Then | What We Know Now |
|---|---|
| Maps were practical tools for navigation and land ownership. | Maps also encode political, cultural, and religious ideologies. |
| Mapmakers were skilled artisans whose work was trusted. | Maps are subjective; they reflect the maker’s choices, knowledge, and limitations. |
| Maps showed the world as it was believed to be. | Maps often reveal what was unknown or deliberately omitted. |
Different Perspectives
Colonizers
European colonial powers used maps to assert ownership and to divide territories. The Library of Congress notes that maps have been “used to claim new territory” and to “insult rivals.” (Source: Library of Congress) For colonizers, a map was a legal and political instrument, a way to transform a foreign land into a possession.
Colonized Peoples
Indigenous and colonized peoples often saw maps as tools of erasure. Their own maps—often oral or drawn on hides—were ignored or overwritten. The primary source record shows that while colonizers produced detailed surveys, the colonized were often depicted as absent or as obstacles. The map’s power lay in its ability to define who belonged and who did not.
How Historians See It Today
Modern historians treat maps not as objective records but as texts to be interrogated. The Stanford University Maps 101 guide encourages readers to ask: “What choices did the mapmaker make?” (Source: Stanford) Historians analyze the map’s projections, symbols, labels, and omissions to understand the worldview of its creator. The Library of Congress notes that analyzing maps “supports the development of critical thinking skills that can be applied to other representations of the world.” (Source: Library of Congress) This approach marks a major shift from seeing maps as neutral geographic aids to viewing them as cultural artifacts embedded in power and meaning.
Common Misconceptions
Related Primary Sources
- World Digital Library (WDL) – A project that brings together maps from cultural institutions worldwide. (Source: Library of Congress)
- Library of Congress Map Collections – including the historical map collections and classroom materials.
- Stanford University’s Maps 101 – an online exhibit with guides for analyzing and using historic maps. (Source: Stanford)
- History Matters – Making Sense of Maps by David Stephens, a guide to working with maps as historical evidence. (Source: History Matters)
FAQ
Why are maps considered primary sources?
Maps are primary sources because they are created by people at a specific time and place, and they reflect the knowledge, beliefs, and biases of their creators. They are original artifacts that historians can analyze to understand how people viewed the world.
What should I look for when analyzing a map?
Look at who made the map, when and why they made it, what choices they made about scale, projection, and labels, and what they omitted or emphasized. Consider the map's intended audience and its political or cultural context.
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